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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220080
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220047
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220122
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220014
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220058
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220061
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220024
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220029
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220066
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220120
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220026
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220081
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220093
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220079
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doi: 10.11676/qxxb2023.20220050
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2022, 80(6): 835-863.
doi: 10.11676/qxxb2022.061
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As a kind of short-period severe weather disaster, hails often have severe impacts on agriculture, construction, electricity, transportation and even lives and properties, etc. Therefore, hail suppression is widely concerned worldwide. This paper provides a detailed review of research progress in hail formation mechanism and hail cloud physics from perspectives of mechanism, technology, scientific experiments and effect evaluation of hail suppression for the purpose to gain in-depth knowledge of domestic and international development of hail suppression in both theoretical and practical fields, improve our understanding of scientific problems in hail suppression, and provide references for promoting theoretical research and technological progress of hail suppression in China. Major results as follows: (1) The "theory of zone of accumulation" and the "theory of cyclic growth" are the most common theories of hail formation. Limited by the early radar observation technology and the lack of complete numerical models for hail simulation, the early knowledge of the hail formation mechanism has certain limitations. (2) Hail embryos are generally divided into frozen drop embryos and graupel embryos. Frozen drop embryos are formed by the freezing of supercooled raindrops while graupel embryos are formed by the growth of collision and freezing of ice crystals and snowflakes. What type of hail embryo is dominant in the hail cloud mainly depends on temperature of the cloud base. The development of hail clouds depends on key factors such as water vapor condition, dynamic instability condition, and vertical wind shear, etc. (3) The mechanism of hail suppression mainly follows two technical lines, "hail suppression by seeding" and "hail suppression by explosion". "Competing interests" and "early rainfall" are the two most widely used theories of seeding among the six common hypotheses of hail suppression on which hail suppression operations are designed. (4) Technically, the hail suppression operations mainly include seeding hail clouds with artificial ice nuclei by aircraft, rocket launcher, ground generator, etc., or launching shells with artificial ice nuclei by ground artillery, which can affect the growing process of hail to suppress or weaken the growth of hail. (5) A large number of field experiments of hail suppression have proved that there are regional differences in operation effect of hail suppression. It is necessary to formulate and develop regional hail suppression technology systems adapted to local conditions according to the characteristics of hail clouds and hailstorms in different regions. (6) Evaluating the effect of hail suppression is still a bottleneck problem that limits the development of hail suppression technology. The methods commonly used to assess the effect of hail suppression mainly include statistical, physical, and numerical simulation evaluations, which need further improvement. Due to the rapid changes in hail clouds and short hailstorm processes, there exits great difficulties in the timeliness of implementation of hail suppression operation and the effect evaluation of hail suppression. It will start from carrying out fine detection of hail clouds based on a variety of observation equipment and comprehensive field experiments of hail suppression with scientific design. Statistical, physical and numerical simulation approaches should be combined to evaluate the effect of hail suppression and promote further development of hail suppression technology in future.
As a kind of short-period severe weather disaster, hails often have severe impacts on agriculture, construction, electricity, transportation and even lives and properties, etc. Therefore, hail suppression is widely concerned worldwide. This paper provides a detailed review of research progress in hail formation mechanism and hail cloud physics from perspectives of mechanism, technology, scientific experiments and effect evaluation of hail suppression for the purpose to gain in-depth knowledge of domestic and international development of hail suppression in both theoretical and practical fields, improve our understanding of scientific problems in hail suppression, and provide references for promoting theoretical research and technological progress of hail suppression in China. Major results as follows: (1) The "theory of zone of accumulation" and the "theory of cyclic growth" are the most common theories of hail formation. Limited by the early radar observation technology and the lack of complete numerical models for hail simulation, the early knowledge of the hail formation mechanism has certain limitations. (2) Hail embryos are generally divided into frozen drop embryos and graupel embryos. Frozen drop embryos are formed by the freezing of supercooled raindrops while graupel embryos are formed by the growth of collision and freezing of ice crystals and snowflakes. What type of hail embryo is dominant in the hail cloud mainly depends on temperature of the cloud base. The development of hail clouds depends on key factors such as water vapor condition, dynamic instability condition, and vertical wind shear, etc. (3) The mechanism of hail suppression mainly follows two technical lines, "hail suppression by seeding" and "hail suppression by explosion". "Competing interests" and "early rainfall" are the two most widely used theories of seeding among the six common hypotheses of hail suppression on which hail suppression operations are designed. (4) Technically, the hail suppression operations mainly include seeding hail clouds with artificial ice nuclei by aircraft, rocket launcher, ground generator, etc., or launching shells with artificial ice nuclei by ground artillery, which can affect the growing process of hail to suppress or weaken the growth of hail. (5) A large number of field experiments of hail suppression have proved that there are regional differences in operation effect of hail suppression. It is necessary to formulate and develop regional hail suppression technology systems adapted to local conditions according to the characteristics of hail clouds and hailstorms in different regions. (6) Evaluating the effect of hail suppression is still a bottleneck problem that limits the development of hail suppression technology. The methods commonly used to assess the effect of hail suppression mainly include statistical, physical, and numerical simulation evaluations, which need further improvement. Due to the rapid changes in hail clouds and short hailstorm processes, there exits great difficulties in the timeliness of implementation of hail suppression operation and the effect evaluation of hail suppression. It will start from carrying out fine detection of hail clouds based on a variety of observation equipment and comprehensive field experiments of hail suppression with scientific design. Statistical, physical and numerical simulation approaches should be combined to evaluate the effect of hail suppression and promote further development of hail suppression technology in future.
2022, 80(6): 864-877.
doi: 10.11676/qxxb2022.067
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Composite methods are applied to analyze atmospheric observations and the NCEP/NCAR Final Operational Global Analysis data as well as the Tibetan Plateau vortex (TPV) and shear line yearbooks from 1998 to 2018 to reveal the ambient field characteristics for the groups of the Tibetan Plateau vortices that move eastward following quasi-straight long-path (QSLTPVs) and multi-turning path (MTTPVs), respectively. The leading factors that lead to the TPVs's turning are also discussed. The results show that the ambient field characteristics common for long-lasting QSLTPVs and MTTPVs activities are that there are obvious weather systems affecting TPVs. And the subtropical high is located to the southeast of the TPVs, while the east and west segments of jet stream exist in the upper levels to the north of the TPV. These systems promote positive vorticity advection into the TPVs and there is positive divergence region above the TPVs. Potential vorticity in the upper levels are transported downward to TPVs. The difference in ambient field conditions between the QSLTPVs and the MTTPVs is obvious, too. The MTTPVs are accompanied by strong tropical low-pressure activities. They are blocked and forced to turn under the influences of the sub-tropical high, the westerly wind belt, the topical low-pressure systems and their interaction. The QSLTPVs move eastward in the ambient background field dominated by westerly synoptic systems. And the QSLTPVs are more affected by cold air, southwesterly flow and upper-level front belt than the MTTPVs. These systems lead to stronger positive vorticity advection, larger potential vorticity, stronger baroclinicity and positive divergence in upper levels. The main factors causing the turning of MTTPVs are that the TPVs are weakened and blocked by the ambient field conditions, and the downward transport of high-level potential vorticity to the TPV results in strong positive vorticity in the west of the TPV. Thereby, the TPV moves to the area where it becomes stronger, which explains why the TPV makes turn.
Composite methods are applied to analyze atmospheric observations and the NCEP/NCAR Final Operational Global Analysis data as well as the Tibetan Plateau vortex (TPV) and shear line yearbooks from 1998 to 2018 to reveal the ambient field characteristics for the groups of the Tibetan Plateau vortices that move eastward following quasi-straight long-path (QSLTPVs) and multi-turning path (MTTPVs), respectively. The leading factors that lead to the TPVs's turning are also discussed. The results show that the ambient field characteristics common for long-lasting QSLTPVs and MTTPVs activities are that there are obvious weather systems affecting TPVs. And the subtropical high is located to the southeast of the TPVs, while the east and west segments of jet stream exist in the upper levels to the north of the TPV. These systems promote positive vorticity advection into the TPVs and there is positive divergence region above the TPVs. Potential vorticity in the upper levels are transported downward to TPVs. The difference in ambient field conditions between the QSLTPVs and the MTTPVs is obvious, too. The MTTPVs are accompanied by strong tropical low-pressure activities. They are blocked and forced to turn under the influences of the sub-tropical high, the westerly wind belt, the topical low-pressure systems and their interaction. The QSLTPVs move eastward in the ambient background field dominated by westerly synoptic systems. And the QSLTPVs are more affected by cold air, southwesterly flow and upper-level front belt than the MTTPVs. These systems lead to stronger positive vorticity advection, larger potential vorticity, stronger baroclinicity and positive divergence in upper levels. The main factors causing the turning of MTTPVs are that the TPVs are weakened and blocked by the ambient field conditions, and the downward transport of high-level potential vorticity to the TPV results in strong positive vorticity in the west of the TPV. Thereby, the TPV moves to the area where it becomes stronger, which explains why the TPV makes turn.
2022, 80(6): 878-895.
doi: 10.11676/qxxb2022.063
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An EF1 tornado occurred in the northern coast of the Bohai under the background of cold vortex on 16 August 2019. Using the Yingkou S-band dual-polarization Doppler weather radar data, surface automatic weather station (AWS) observations at 5 min interval, the Panjin wind profile radar data and ERA5 reanalysis data, the environmental background, the structure and formation of the tornadic storm and the tornadogenesis are studied. The results show that the tornado occurred under the background of a cold vortex at 500 hPa, and it was located in the water vapor conveyor belt on the west side of the residual vortex of typhoon "Lekima". The environmental condition is characterized by weak vertical wind shear and strong low-level thermal instability. The Yingkou dual-polarization radar is located 15 km away from where the tornado originated. The hook echo, the descending reflectivity core (DRC), the weak echo hole (WEH), and the tornadic debris signature (TDS) in mini supercell are detected by the radar. The outflow of the decaying thunderstorm gust front moved westward, while the sea breeze front near Yingkou slowly moved eastward. The two boundary layer convergence lines merged, leading to the forming of γ-mesoscale vortex under the influence of horizontal shear instability. The intersection of outflow boundaries, the large positive ambient buoyancy and the vertical perturbation pressure gradient associated with the low pressure induced by the middle level mesocyclone jointly produced strong updrafts. The collocation of the updrafts and the γ-mesoscale vortex played a critical role for the genesis of misocyclone by strong stretching. The combination of the maximum rotation velocity and the minimum diameter of the misocyclone corresponded to the tornadogenesis, and the separation of the misocyclone and the mesocyclone in the middle level led to the dissipation of the tornado.
An EF1 tornado occurred in the northern coast of the Bohai under the background of cold vortex on 16 August 2019. Using the Yingkou S-band dual-polarization Doppler weather radar data, surface automatic weather station (AWS) observations at 5 min interval, the Panjin wind profile radar data and ERA5 reanalysis data, the environmental background, the structure and formation of the tornadic storm and the tornadogenesis are studied. The results show that the tornado occurred under the background of a cold vortex at 500 hPa, and it was located in the water vapor conveyor belt on the west side of the residual vortex of typhoon "Lekima". The environmental condition is characterized by weak vertical wind shear and strong low-level thermal instability. The Yingkou dual-polarization radar is located 15 km away from where the tornado originated. The hook echo, the descending reflectivity core (DRC), the weak echo hole (WEH), and the tornadic debris signature (TDS) in mini supercell are detected by the radar. The outflow of the decaying thunderstorm gust front moved westward, while the sea breeze front near Yingkou slowly moved eastward. The two boundary layer convergence lines merged, leading to the forming of γ-mesoscale vortex under the influence of horizontal shear instability. The intersection of outflow boundaries, the large positive ambient buoyancy and the vertical perturbation pressure gradient associated with the low pressure induced by the middle level mesocyclone jointly produced strong updrafts. The collocation of the updrafts and the γ-mesoscale vortex played a critical role for the genesis of misocyclone by strong stretching. The combination of the maximum rotation velocity and the minimum diameter of the misocyclone corresponded to the tornadogenesis, and the separation of the misocyclone and the mesocyclone in the middle level led to the dissipation of the tornado.
Analysis on the asymmetric characteristics and causes of the wind circle radius of tropical cyclones
2022, 80(6): 896-908.
doi: 10.11676/qxxb2022.064
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To improve the analysis and forecast of tropical cyclone (TC) wind circle, the asymmetric characteristics and causes of wind circle maximum radii of 55.6 km/h, 92.6 km/h and 118.5 km/h for TCs at their maximum intensity during 30 June 2015 to 31 December 2020 are studied using the TC data released by the National Meteorological Centre (NMC) and data extracted from ERA5 reanalysis. Statistical results show that the 55.6 km/h wind circle radius of TC is the most asymmetric, followed by the 92.6 km/h and 118.5 km/h wind circle radii. The 55.6 km/h, 92.6 km/h and 118.5 km/h wind circle maximum radii of TC with asymmetric distribution are mostly located at the north east (NE), southeast (SE) and northwest (NW) quadrants. The 55.6 km/h and 118.5 km/h wind circle maximum radii of the same TC are roughly located at the same quadrant. Single quadrant distribution TCs and multi-quadrant distribution TCs of 55.6 km/h wind circle are divided into four types according to quadrant distribution. By analyzing the generation season, surface wind and the causes of asymmetric distribution of TC with single quadrant distribution of 55.6 km/h wind circle, it is found that the generation of these four types of TC have obvious seasonal characteristics. The surface wind in different quadrants of TC shows asymmetric characteristic. The asymmetric distribution of wind circle is closely related to the asymmetry of potential height gradient in different quadrants caused by the interactions between TC and other weather systems, including the Western Pacific Subtropical High, the southwesterly air flow and surface cold high pressure, etc.
To improve the analysis and forecast of tropical cyclone (TC) wind circle, the asymmetric characteristics and causes of wind circle maximum radii of 55.6 km/h, 92.6 km/h and 118.5 km/h for TCs at their maximum intensity during 30 June 2015 to 31 December 2020 are studied using the TC data released by the National Meteorological Centre (NMC) and data extracted from ERA5 reanalysis. Statistical results show that the 55.6 km/h wind circle radius of TC is the most asymmetric, followed by the 92.6 km/h and 118.5 km/h wind circle radii. The 55.6 km/h, 92.6 km/h and 118.5 km/h wind circle maximum radii of TC with asymmetric distribution are mostly located at the north east (NE), southeast (SE) and northwest (NW) quadrants. The 55.6 km/h and 118.5 km/h wind circle maximum radii of the same TC are roughly located at the same quadrant. Single quadrant distribution TCs and multi-quadrant distribution TCs of 55.6 km/h wind circle are divided into four types according to quadrant distribution. By analyzing the generation season, surface wind and the causes of asymmetric distribution of TC with single quadrant distribution of 55.6 km/h wind circle, it is found that the generation of these four types of TC have obvious seasonal characteristics. The surface wind in different quadrants of TC shows asymmetric characteristic. The asymmetric distribution of wind circle is closely related to the asymmetry of potential height gradient in different quadrants caused by the interactions between TC and other weather systems, including the Western Pacific Subtropical High, the southwesterly air flow and surface cold high pressure, etc.